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The purpose of this paper is to answer the question of whether train delays are a price-relevant marginal cost. The question has been raised by the Swedish infrastructure manager (Trafikverket) which is responsible for setting track access charges. The charging of track access fees is regulated in the Railway Act and consists mainly of marginal cost pricing and fees for cost recovery above marginal cost.

The main reason for charging track fees according to the marginal cost principle is to give economic incentive in order to influence the market agents to take these externalities into account in their decision-making. When an externality is correctly priced this externality is no longer “external” on behalf of the market agents and, in this way, economic efficiency is achieved through a decentralized decision-making.

In order for a certain cost to be price-relevant, with respect to the marginal cost pricing principle, it is required that there are some externalities involved and also that there is a relationship between cost and traffic volume.

Rail services are conducted according to a detailed timetable where each train is regulated geographically with minute precision. Delays primarily occur through an incident, such as infrastructure failure or breakdown of vehicles, leading one or more trains to deviate from the time table. Subsequently this initial delay is spread in the system through the interaction between trains that is built into the timetable.

The total extent of train delays is due to the following:
• Number of faults (primary causes of delays)
• Capacity of infrastructure (number of tracks and siding, signaling system)
• Timetable (number of trains, distance in time between trains in the same direction, meeting between trains in the opposite directions etc.)

In the short run the capacity of the infrastructure is fixed. Train delays can therefore be influenced by the number of faults occurred and by the construction of the timetable (which is crucial for the spread of the initial disturbances to other trains).

Recently a new track fee, called “quality fee”, has been introduced which is aimed at influencing the number of faults occurring, both on behalf of train operating companies and the infrastructure manager. The fee is initially set at a rather low level and may be raised in the future if it will be considered necessary.

The process of constructing the time table that will be valid a certain year starts almost two years ahead by the publishing of the network statement, including track access fees. Based on these fees and other information in this network statement, train operating companies apply for capacity. The infrastructure manager then coordinates between these different applications in order to produce a final, functional, time table.

The secondary delays are due to several parameters in the time table simultaneously; the number of trains, time margins, meeting between trains, time-distance between trains in the same direction, circulation plans of vehicle and staff etc. The utilization of capacity, which describes the relationship between the infrastructure and the time table, is the crucial factor in determination of the spread of delays and therefore the extent of total delays. In order to influence total delays it is therefore crucial to influence the utilization of capacity. This can partly be done with track access charges with respect to capacity but it has to be observed that this is not a pricing of delays but instead a pricing of the underlying circumstances of total delays.

When establishing the final time table, the infrastructure manager also “decides” on total delays, since the latter is a function of the time table, given the infrastructure capacity. Since train delays are a large and increasing problem, it seems that this problem is not taken account of in a sufficient way

To summarize, our conclusion is that train delays are not a price-relevant marginal cost and therefore should not be included in the track fees based on marginal costs. This is mainly due to the fact that the secondary delays at a particular point in time depend on the construction of the timetable in effect at the same time. In addition, the extent to which delays are external a certain year depends on the market structure in this year, that is how many train operating companies are involved, which varies both geographically and over time.

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Research area

Traffic analysis
Transport economics

  • Published: 2011-09-19
  • VTI-code: N22-2011

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Methods for estimating pedestrian and cycle traffic. Survey and quality assessment

Year:
2010
VTI-code:
R686

Authors: Liselott Söderström , Petra Ahlström , Annika Nilsson , Anna Niska , Mats Wiklund , Urban Björketun , Kerstin Robertson

This report is part of the project Measures and methods for evaluating pedestrian and bicycle traffic and summarises the present needs for, and the procedures applied in, estimating the proportion of total travel represented by pedestrian and cycle traffic. The report also comprises an analysis of the data available in Sweden in the form of travel surveys and measurements of pedestrian and cycle traffic flows. In the analysis, different methods are compared, similarities and differences are identified, and the significance of these differences for monitoring pedestrian and cycle travel is discussed. The aim of the project is to propose a harmonised method for estimating the proportion of cycle and pedestrian traffic in Swedish towns.

Most local authorities have some type of target with regard to cycle traffic, while target formulations for pedestrian traffic are less frequent. To increase the proportion of total travel represented by cycle traffic is the most common target. However, this target is seldom followed up, and it is mostly the numbers of cyclists at certain points that are measured instead. Many local authorities make annual flow measurements in order to monitor their overriding targets regarding cycling and to prioritise certain measures among others, or to monitor specific measures on individual routes. Travel surveys are made less frequently and are mainly used in planning and monitoring general plans. In certain cases, local authorities have made additional surveys for their own areas within the framework of regional travel surveys. These can then be used to analyse travel at local level also, inclusive of the journeys in the local authority area by people commuting into the area. In principle, national travel surveys such as RES 2005–2006 could be used for monitoring pedestrian and cycle travel at local level, but as a rule there are far too few observations in individual towns.

The survey and analysis have demonstrated that there are several differences in method between different travel surveys, and that these have distorted the results concerning the choice of mode. Both the method as such with its definitions and limitations, and the quality of the various phases in its implementation, play a part. Our analyses have for example shown that the definition of travel (main trips, part trips, trip element) is of especially great importance. This has consequences in comparisons between different places and also for monitoring over time. The period spent on collecting data and the period for which the results are reported also have an important part to play. RES collects data over the entire year, while the local investigations and measurements often focus on spring/autumn and weekdays.

There are also differences between cycle counts, from fixed measurement points at a few places to manual counts at a relatively large number of places. It is often the cycle flows to/from the centre of the town that are counted. In some cases, short counts are combined with those at some fixed measurement point, and the counts are scaled up into daily or annual values. Many local authorities collect weather data during these measurements, but few correct the traffic data with respect to these. Measurements are mostly made in the spring or autumn. Measurements of pedestrian flows are becoming increasingly common, and are often made by organisations such as "City Interaction" or similar. The arrangement is often based on the way cycle counts are made.

Since travel surveys and traffic flow measurements measure different things, conclusions based on the different sources may at times differ. The measurements may show that people cycle more than ever before, while travel surveys show that the proportion of cycle traffic is decreasing. Both conclusions may be right, and they reflect the importance of the methods employed, and also of the units (numbers or proportion). The unit "proportion" is made up of more components than pedestrian and cycle traffic as such, and depends above all on the total travel. It is therefore not only the proportions that are of interest but, for example, also the number of trips per person.


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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2010-09-09
  • VTI-code: R686

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The purpose of this study was to find new methods and technologies which could help develop better, safer and easier ways to measure cycling data.

Currently, the preferred methods for counting cycle traffic are to use either inductive loops or air tubes. Signals or pulses are created from passing cycles. A computer program then analyses the signals or pulses and calculates the number of passing cycles. Manual counting is also widely used for measuring cycle traffic. In addition, travel habit surveys are often used to give a more comprehensive picture of the cycle traffic data.

The various methods have their pros and cons. The use of inductive loops, which are placed under the road surface, is a good method when cycling data is measured continuously for a long period of time. The air tube method is more suitable for temporary measurements. Manual counts are good for short periods where the cycle traffic has many possible route options.

The result of this literature study is divided into equipment detecting cycles in order to control traffic signals, and equipment used to measure cycle flow. There is also a section that focuses on comparisons between different measurement equipment and another on how new technologies can be used for other benefits for cyclists.

There are ongoing developments and attempts to use new technologies to measure cycle flows in several parts of the world. One problem is measuring accurately. Accuracy varies between different equipment, measuring points, parameter settings, traffic levels, weather conditions and much more. The accuracy importance depends on the purpose of the measurement. The measuring equipment should be chosen based on the purpose. Depending on the purpose of the measurement, some measuring devices fit better than others. To control signals, it is important that there are few misses. Extra detection causes no problem. For bicycle flow measurements, both misses and extra detections can be accepted as long as the numbers are roughly the same.

Many users have problems setting up the equipment to achieve high performance. This is especially true when the equipment is used where there is a mix of different road users (cyclists, pedestrians, motor vehicles). Some of the studies referred to have focused on how the equipment should be used and adjusted to provide the best measurement results. This problem seems to be very important for further research.

For the future one can hope that the cycle, the cycle computer, or possibly even the cycle helmet will be equipped with new technology. Technology would not only allow measurement of the cycle flows and control of traffic signals, but would also provide an information link to and from the cyclists. It may also even make it possible to trace a stolen cycle.

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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2009-11-27
  • VTI-code: R663

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The Swedish Road Administration is planning to install median barriers on narrow two-lane rural roads with paved carriageway widths down to 9 m. Overtaking lanes will be added on the road sections where barriers are installed. The added overtaking lanes will make it possible to overtake on at least 15 per cent of the road length. The narrow roads with median barrier will therefore mostly get one lane per direction. The result will be a “sparse” 2+1-road as opposed to the conventional Swedish 2+1-design with a continuous overtaking lane that is alternating between the two driving directions.

VTI has, by commission of the Swedish Road Administration, constructed speed-flow relationships for “sparse” 2+1-roads with different percentages of the road lengths including an overtaking lane. The speed-flow relationships are based on simulation using the Rural Traffic Simulator (RuTSim). Speed-flow relationships for a normal two-lane road and a conventional 2+1-road have also been constructed using the same method to allow comparison of the “sparse” 2+1-road designs with conventional designs.

The length of the overtaking lanes has been assumed to be 850 m on the “sparse” road designs and 1 500 m on the conventional 2+1-design. Moreover, the road alignment has been assumed not to place any additional restrictions on the quality-of-service.

The resulting speed-flow relationships indicate that the highest speeds are obtained on the two-lane road during low volume conditions. The possibility to overtake slower traffic is however limited on the two-lane road in higher traffic flows. The overtaking lanes on the conventional 2+1-design does however allow overtaking also in higher traffic flows. The highest speeds in high volume conditions are therefore obtained on the conventional 2+1-road. The shorter overtaking lanes on the “sparse” 2+1-designs do not allow sufficient platoon discharge. The speeds on the “sparse” designs are consequently influenced already in low volume conditions and will also be lower than the speeds on the conventional road designs. This is why further research related to this work include analysis of the impact of the overtaking lane length on “sparse” road designs including a median barrier.

It is necessary to relate the presented speed--flow relationships to the ongoing revision of the Swedish speed limit system. In the revision, the speed limit on most of the conventional 2+1-roads will be increased from 90 to 100 km/h. This increase will also be implemented for “sparse” 2+1-designs including a median barrier. The increased speed limit will give rise to an increase in passenger car speeds of about 4 to 5 km/h compared to the speeds presented in this work. The speeds on a “sparse” 2+1-road with speed limit 100 km/h will therefore be higher than the speeds on a two-lane road with speed limit 90 km/h. The speed limit on many two-lane highways will also be lowered to 80 km/h.

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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2009-08-26
  • VTI-code: N18-2009

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CONTRAM (Continuous Traffic Assignment Model) is a computerised model for simulation of traffic flows on roads and streets. The model makes it possible to study effects of traffic management schemes or future developments of the street network. CONTRAM results are based on simulations at the meso level. The smallest unit is a group or “package” of vehicles with origin-destination between two geographical points. A “point” is an approximation of a geographical area, for instance an area with housing.

The overall objective was to use the CONTRAM software for a traffic problem in Linköping. After discussions with Linköping Municipality, the Braskens bro area was chosen with the planned devevelopment of an eastern by-pass – “Östra Länken” (the Eastern Link). The main interest of the Municipality was the second of the two steps:
a) modelling of the existing situation and b) estimates of how planned road developments will affect traffic. More specifically, the Municipality wanted to know how the developments will change the traffic flow level on the heavily used Braskens bro, which for short time intervals sometimes can be oversaturated.

A substantial coding effort could be avoided, since Linköping Municipality provided a traffic network coded for other software. This could be transformed into a format suitable for CONTRAM. The origin-destination matrix was also provided by the Municipality.

The CONTRAM results show that the Eastern Link will attract traffic from Gamla Tanneforsvägen and – to lesser degree – from Nya Tanneforsvägen. In turn, this will decrease traffic through some of the intersections closer to Linköping centre, foremost Gamla Tanneforsvägen–Hagalundsvägen. However, the Eastern Link will cause increased traffic in the Tannefors area overall and particularly on the sometimes nearly saturated Braskens bro with its two intersections.

The Eastern Link combined with a new bridge across the river Stångån east of Braskens bro (the Emmalund connection) will accomplish a substantial decrease in traffic on Braskens bro – about 20–40 per cent lower traffic flows. However, the daily traffic on Åtvidabergsvägen (Highway 35) will increase from 15,000 to more than 20,000.

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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2008-11-12
  • VTI-code: N28-2008

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Distance keeping at urban junctions –a model

Year:
2008
VTI-code:
M858

Authors: Göran K Nilsson Aruhsell

This investigation aims at increasing knowledge of distance keeping at urban junctions. Since these are where most rear end collisions occur, such knowledge is important for traffic safety and trafficability.

A pilot study was conducted in the form of literature studies. The main investigation was performed through of impeded vehicles measurements with a traffic analyser and video filming.

A study was made of the total traffic approaching the junction and also of two selected groups of impeded vehicles. The impeded vehicles were following a vehicle that either turned right or proceeded straight ahead.

Four junctions were selected, two with traffic lights and two without. At three of the junctions, there was a speed limit of 50 km/h. At the fourth junction, which was one of those with traffic lights, the speed limit was 70 km/h. The time gaps were measured at four points corresponding to 0, 2, 4 and 6 seconds before the junction for a vehicle with a speed equal to the speed limit. The measurements were carried out over a period of two days. Video filming was performed during rush-hour traffic for later identification of vehicle behaviour. In order to study the “successive” change, a special study was carried out through video filming where the time gap was calculated for every five meters.

For total traffic over two days, the mean values for impeded vehicles (time gap < 5 sec) were between 2.2 and 2.7 seconds. The two roads with traffic lights show a decrease in the time gap, while the roads without traffic lights show an increase. The time gap distribution was shortest just before the junctions without traffic lights and nearest the junctions with traffic lights.

Regression analysis shows a positive relation between the time gap and distance to the junction. For three junctions, the 5-percentile for the time gap increases.

When investigating the successive change in time gap, it was found that vehicles impeded by others turning right reduce their time gap from about 20 metres before the junction. Vehicles impeded by others proceeding straight ahead have approximately the same time gap all the way on the section studied.

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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2008-04-15
  • VTI-code: M858

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Truck transportation with vehicles up to 25.25 meters in length and with a maximum
gross vehicle weight of 60 tonnes is permitted in Sweden and Finland. The standard in
the rest of the EU is 18.75 metres and 40 tonnes.
The Government has commissioned the Swedish National Road and Transport Research
Institute (VTI) to investigate what effects long trucks have for the transport system in
Sweden. We have interpreted the assignment as meaning that the effects of heavy trucks
are also to be described. The assignment includes analysing the competition between
road and rail transportation and making an economic assessment of present-day vehicle
regulation in Sweden. The study is largely based on an examination of official statistics.
The national goods transport model SAMGODS has been used to simulate how the
choice of mode of transport and the transport costs of business are affected by a change
in the length and weight of trucks. The change in exhaust emissions has been calculated
using the European mathematical model ARTEMIS and noise effects using the
European HARMONOISE model. Time delays and road-safety effects have been
calculated using methods developed at VTI. Effects relating to road wear are based on a
thesis recently presented at VTI.
A large proportion of freight transportation in Sweden takes place by vehicles that
exceed the EU standard. Statistics show that 64 per cent of the tonnage (in tonnes) and
74 per cent of freight tonne-kilometres by road are accounted for by vehicles that weigh
more than 40 tonnes and/or have seven or more axles. The measure of seven axles is
used in the absence of information on the length of trucks.
Provided that the same quantity of freight is to be transported, shorter and lighter trucks
mean that the transport cost per vehicle is reduced but that the number of vehicles
needed increases. The cost per truck is estimated to decrease by five to twelve per cent
in the various commodity groups and the number of trucks to increase by 35–50 per
cent. On average 1.37 trucks of maximum EU size are required to replace one truck of
maximum Swedish size. The cost of transportation by truck is estimated to increase by
24 per cent.
Scenarios
Various scenarios for 2005 have been defined to obtain a picture of how the increased
costs affect freight vehicle-kilometres on the roads and how freight vehicle-kilometres
are shared between road and rail.

• Scenario A is a reference scenario in which trucks are up to 25.25 metres in
length and are allowed to weigh up to 60 tonnes.
• In Scenario B it is assumed that transfer to other modes of transport is not
possible. The trucks are up to 18.75 metres in length and are allowed to weigh
up to 40 tonnes.
• In Scenario C transfer between road, rail and sea is permitted. The trucks are up
to 18.75 metres in length and are allowed to weigh up to 40 tonnes.
• In Scenario D freight volumes in 2005 were shared out in an infrastructure in
which capacity for freight trains has been strengthened. The trucks are up to
25.25 metres in length and are allowed to weigh 60 tonnes. This is a “supporting
scenario” which has been stimulated in order to separate the effects of the two
changes that take place simultaneously in Scenario C.
Everything else is assumed to be equal. We have assumed that no changes take place in
the locations of activities and that employment in the labour market is not affected.
Furthermore we have not studied how the total volume of freight transported alters with
changed transportation prices.
The capacity situation for freight transportation by rail today is difficult. It is not easy to
find new freight train paths to and from Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö. The situation
at the large shunting yard in Hallsberg is also problematic. This means that a change in
trucks, in the short term, can be expected to produce a result that is quite close to
Scenario B.
Scenario B
Freight vehicle-kilometres for heavy truck traffic as a whole (trucks with a gross vehicle
weight of 3.5-60 tonnes) are estimated to increase by 24 per cent when Swedish
vehicles are replaced by EU vehicles.
The total cost of transportation to business is estimated to increase by around
SEK 7.5 billion per year (all benefits and costs expressed in 2001 prices). The change in
transport cost is found to be by far the dominant negative effect of changes in vehicle
standards. Most of the other effects point in the same direction.
With more trucks on the roads the cost of road traffic accidents is estimated to increase
by SEK 491 million per year. There is nothing in the accident statistics studied to
suggest that shorter and lighter trucks would result in fewer or less serious accidents.
Diesel consumption is estimated to increase by just over six per cent, leading to
increased exhaust emissions to a combined annual value of SEK 583 million. Carbon
dioxide accounts for 62 per cent, equivalent to around 240 000 tonnes.
Noise emissions are estimated to increase to an extent equivalent in value to
SEK 690 million annually.
More trucks on the roads are estimated to mean time losses for motorists equivalent in
value to SEK 50 million annually.
The only anticipated improvement is a reduction in road wear and an increase in
government tax revenue. However, this is conditional on the freight being distributed
between more axles than present-day EU vehicles.
The total economic cost of introducing shorter and lighter vehicles is SEK 8.9 billion
per year.

The competition between road and rail
The negative outcome of changes in truck standards can be mitigated if it is possible
and commercially feasible to transfer some freight volumes to rail. Both increased track
capacity and an improvement in level of service and reliability are, however, required
for a major transfer to rail.
A review of time series for road and rail transportation in the last 30 years, both at
aggregate level and at commodity group level, shows that it is difficult to find evidence
of road and rail taking volumes from each other – including in those periods where we
know that large changes with cost implications have taken place.
It is clearly apparent that there is one mode of transport that is heavily dominant for
most commodity groups. This is interpreted as meaning that there is a great difference
between road and rail transportation from the point of view of transport buyers.
The possibility of rail operators raising their prices if road transportation becomes more
expensive is another factor that should be taken into account.
Scenario C
Significant transfer to rail is anticipated in Scenario C. Despite this, freight vehiclekilometres
by road are estimated to increase by 14 per cent, with the result that transport
costs for business are estimated to increase by around SEK 3.1 billion annually.
The cost of road traffic accidents is also estimated to increase in this case, as well as the
cost of noise nuisance and delays to motorists.
However, exhaust emissions are estimated to decrease in comparison with Scenario A.
Carbon dioxide emissions are estimated to decrease by around 106 000 tonnes per year,
which is just under three per cent of heavy goods vehicle emissions and is estimated at
SEK 159 million per year.
Conclusion
A change in rules in favour of shorter and lighter trucks in Sweden would result in an
economic loss which would be principally borne by trade and industry.
The investments in load-bearing capacity which the Swedish Road Administration
began in 1988 in order to adapt the standard of roads to the demands of heavy vehicles
are expected to cost a total of SEK 46 billion (at 2001 prices). This econom

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Research area

Traffic analysis
Environment
Transport system
Transport economics
Traffic safety

  • Published: 2008-02-01
  • VTI-code: R605

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Inom Sverige och Finland tillåts lastbilstransporter med fordon som är upp till
25,25 meter långa och som har en totalvikt på max 60 ton. Inom övriga EU är normen
18,75 meter och 40 ton.
Regeringen har givit VTI (Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut) i uppdrag att
utreda vilka effekter de långa lastbilarna har för transportsystemet i Sverige. Vi har
tolkat in att även effekterna av tunga lastbilar skall beskrivas. I uppdraget ingår att
analysera konkurrensytan mellan väg- och järnvägstransporterna och att göra en
samhällsekonomisk bedömning av nuvarande fordonsreglering i Sverige.
Utredningen bygger till stor del på en genomgång av den officiella statistiken. Den
nationella godstransportmodellen SAMGODS har använts för att simulera hur valet av
transportmedel och näringslivets transportkostnader påverkas vid förändring av lastbilarnas
längd- och viktdimensioner. Förändringen av avgasemissioner har beräknats
med hjälp av den europeiska beräkningsmodellen ARTEMIS och bullereffekter med
den europeiska modellen HARMONOISE. Tidsfördröjningar och trafiksäkerhetseffekter
har beräknats med hjälp av metoder utvecklade inom VTI. Effekterna för
vägslitaget bygger på en nyligen framlagd avhandling vid VTI.
En stor andel av godstransporterna i Sverige utförs med fordon som överskrider EUnormen.
Statistiken visar att 64 procent av tonnaget (ton) och 74 procent av transportarbetet
(tonkilometer) sker med fordon som väger mer än 40 ton och/eller har sju axlar
eller fler. Måttet sju axlar eller fler används i avsaknad av information om lastbilarnas
längd.
Förutsatt att samma godsmängd skall transporteras medför kortare och lättare lastbilar
att transportkostnaden per fordon minskar men att antalet fordon som behövs ökar.
Kostnaden per lastbil beräknas minska med 5 till 12 procent inom de olika varugrupperna
och antalet lastbilar öka med 35–50 procent. I genomsnitt antas det krävas
1,37 lastbilar med maximal EU-storlek för att ersätta en lastbil med maximal svensk
storlek. Kostnaden för lastbilstransporter beräknas öka med 24 procent.
Scenarier
För att få en bild av hur de ökade kostnaderna påverkar trafikarbetet på väg och hur
transportarbetet fördelar sig mellan väg och järnväg har olika scenarier för år 2005
definierats.
• Scenario A är referensscenario, lastbilarna är upp till 25,25 meter och får väga
max 60 ton.
• I scenario B antas att överflyttning till andra transportslag inte är möjligt.
Lastbilarna är upp till 18,75 meter och får väga max 40 ton.
• I scenario C tillåts överflyttning mellan väg, järnväg och sjöfart. Lastbilarna är
upp till 18,75 meter långa och får väga max 40 ton.
• I scenario D fördelades 2005 års godsvolymer på en infrastruktur där kapaciteten
för godståg har förstärkts. Lastbilarna är upp till 25,25 meter och får väga
60 ton. Detta är ett ”stödscenario” som simulerats för att det skall vara möjligt
att separera effekterna av de två förändringar som sker simultant i scenario C.
Allt annat antas vara lika. Vi har antagit att det inte sker någon förändring av verksamheters
lokaliseringar och att sysselsättningen på arbetsmarknaden inte påverkas och vi
har inte studerat hur den totala transporterade godsvolymen förändras vid förändrade
transportpriser.
Idag är kapacitetssituationen för godstransporter på järnväg besvärlig. Det är svårt att
finna nya godståglägen till/från Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö. Även situationen vid
den stora rangerbangården i Hallsberg är problematisk. Detta gör att en förändring av
lastbilarna, på kort sikt, kan förväntas ge ett utfall som ligger rätt nära scenario B.
Scenario B
För den tunga lastbilstrafiken som helhet (lastbilar med totalvikten 3,5–60 ton) beräknas
trafikarbetet (fordonskilometer) öka med 24 procent när svenska fordon ersätts med EUfordon.
Den totala transportkostnaden för näringslivet beräknas öka med ca 7,5 miljarder kronor
per år (alla nyttor och kostnader uttrycks i prisnivå 2001). Transportkostnadsförändringen
visar sig vara den helt dominerande negativa effekten av förändrade fordonsnormer.
Av de övriga effekterna går de flesta i samma riktning.
Med fler lastbilar på vägarna beräknas kostnaden för trafikolyckor öka med
491 miljoner kronor per år. Ingenting i den studerade olycksstatistiken tyder på att
kortare och lättare fordon skulle ge färre eller mindre allvarliga olyckor.
Dieselförbrukningen beräknas öka med drygt 6 procent, vilket leder till ökade utsläpp
av avgasemissioner till ett sammanlagt värde av 583 miljoner kronor per år. Koldioxiden
står för 62 procent motsvarande ca 240 000 ton.
Bulleremissionerna beräknas öka motsvarande ett värde av 690 miljoner kronor per år.
Fler lastbilar på vägarna beräknas medföra tidsförluster för bilisterna motsvarande ett
värde på 50 miljoner kronor per år.
Den enda förbättring som beräknas uppkomma är att vägslitaget minskar och att statens
skatteintäkter ökar. En förutsättning är dock att godset fördelas på fler axlar än dagens
EU-fordon.
Den totala samhällsekonomiska kostnaden för att införa kortare och lättare fordon
uppgår till 8,9 miljarder kronor per år.
Konkurrensytan mellan väg och järnväg
Det negativa utfallet av förändrade lastbilsnormer kan lindras ifall det är möjligt och
företagsekonomiskt rimligt att flytta över delar av godsvolymerna till järnväg. En större överflyttning till järnväg kräver dock såväl ökad spårkapacitet som en förbättring av
erbjuden servicenivå och tillförlitlighet.
En genomgång av tidsserier för väg- och järnvägstransporter de senaste 30 åren, både på
aggregerad nivå och varugruppsnivå, visar att det är svårt att se tecken på att väg och
järnväg tar volymer av varandra – även vid de perioder där vi vet att stora kostnadspåverkande
förändringar ägt rum.
En tydlig observation är att det för de flesta varugrupperna finns ett transportslag som är
kraftigt dominerande. Detta tolkas som att det från transportköparnas synvinkel är stor
skillnad mellan väg- och järnvägstransporter.
Något som även bör beaktas är möjligheten att järnvägsoperatörerna höjer sina priser
ifall lastbilstransporterna blir dyrare.
Scenario C
I scenario C räknas med en betydande överflyttning till järnväg. Trots detta beräknas
trafikarbetet på väg öka med 14 procent, vilket gör att näringslivets transportkostnad
beräknas öka med ca 3,1 miljarder kronor per år.
Kostnaden för trafikolyckor beräknas öka även i detta fall, liksom kostnaden för bullerstörningar
och bilisternas tidsfördröjningar.
Avgasemissionerna beräknas dock minska jämfört med scenario A. Utsläppen av koldioxid
beräknas minska med ca 106 000 ton per år, vilket är knappt 3 procent av den
tunga lastbilstrafikens utsläpp och värderas till 159 miljoner kronor per år.
Slutsats
En regelförändring mot kortare och lättare lastbilar i Sverige skulle ge en samhällsekonomisk
förlust som framför allt bärs av näringslivet.
De bärighetsinvesteringar som Vägverket påbörjade 1988 för att anpassa vägarnas
standard till de krav som tunga fordon ställer förväntas i sin helhet kosta 46 miljarder
(prisnivå 2001). Denna kostnad tjänas in av samhället efter drygt 5 år i scenario B och
efter knappt 12 år i scenario C.

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Research area

Traffic analysis
Environment
Transport system
Transport economics
Traffic safety

  • Published: 2008-02-01
  • VTI-code: R605A

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In the end of the 1990s VTI and Statistics Sweden (SCB) jointly developed an estimation model for the annual vehicle mileage in Sweden for the period 1950–1997, expressed as vehicle kilometres on road . This model is documented in VTI Report No 439, 1999. Since then, SIKA has annually commissioned VTI to estimate the annual vehicle mileage for different vehicle types in Sweden. Initially, a number of minor modifications were made, but in 2003 there was a major change since data from SCB and Bilprovningen (the Swedish Motor Vehicle Inspection Company) were available.

There were two reasons for the model change. One was to make use of the detailed information provided by SIKA/SCB/Bilprovningen and the other to categorise lorries according to total weight instead of maximum load.

Before 1990 lorries were categorised based on axle spacing and maximum load. In the new version of the model total weight is used to form the categories. The total weight does not include an eventual trailer.

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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2007-12-10
  • VTI-code: N20-2007

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VTI has, by commission of WSP, compared the quality-of-service of an alternative rural road design to the performance of the existing road on a section of the national route E18. This studied part of E18 is located between Karlskoga and Lekhyttan. The alternative design has separated oncoming lanes and a lane design that follows that of the existing road with an addition of two 1,5 km long overtaking sections. The total length of the road is 15 km and no substantial traffic flows enter or exit the road along the studied stretch. All analyses were to be based on simulation results of the VTI rural traffic simulation model, RuTSim.

AADT along the road has been estimated to 13 280 vehicles for the design horizon year 2025. Two hourly traffic flows for the simulation were constructed based on this estimate. One of the flows was set to 10.0 per cent of AADT for passenger cars and 7.65 per cent of AADT for heavy vehicles in order to correspond to the flow during the design hour. The other flow, 6.2 per cent of AADT for both passenger cars and heavy vehicles, corresponds to the average weekday traffic volume.

The speed limit of the studied road is 90 kph. According to the Swedish road design manual the journey speeds of light vehicles should not be less than 10 kph below the speed limit during the design hour. The alternative road design results in average journey speeds for light vehicles of 78 and 77 kph in the eastbound and westbound direction respectively. The corresponding average journey speeds for the existing road are 81 and 79 kph. The design criterion is consequently not fulfilled for the alternative road design. It is therefore desirable to increase the quality-of-service with additional or longer overtaking lanes. Delays, platoon lengths and percent time spent following are also studied. These performance measures indicate a road design alternative with reduced quality-of-service compared to the existing road.

This traffic simulation study has been conducted without data for calibration and validation of the simulation model. The uncertainty in the simulation results is therefore larger than if data had been available. There is also a risk that some local conditions on the road, that may influence the simulation, have been neglected.

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Research area

Traffic analysis

  • Published: 2007-06-15
  • VTI-code: N13-2007

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